England’s rulers and their ‘favourites’
Many rulers throughout history were known to have ‘favourites’ – friends or companions with whom they had special, often intimate, relationships. This relationship would almost always result in the favourite being given special power and influence above their station, causing jealousy among those who felt that they were more entitled to it. Across history, we have seen how this could lead to a favourite’s downfall.
While the term ‘favourite’ has sometimes been interchangeable with that of ‘lover’, in most cases we don’t know if the relationships were romantic. Relationships did not necessarily involve someone of the opposite sex either. There are many historical examples of same-sex relationships between a ruler and their favourite.
Three of England’s rulers – the Roman Emperor Hadrian, King James I and Queen Anne – had same-sex relationships with their ‘favourites’. We explore their stories through three objects in the collections at Osborne, Audley End House and Ranger’s House.
Antinous as Osiris
Hadrian and Antinous
At Osborne, Queen Victoria’s ‘Palace By The Sea’ on the Isle of Wight, is a statue that depicts a full-size male figure wearing an ancient Egyptian crown and skirt. It is a Roman statue of a young man named Antinous, taking the form of the Egyptian god Osiris – the god of fertility, afterlife and resurrection.
Osborne, Isle of Wight
Osborne, Isle of Wight
Antinous was a young man, possibly a slave, from the Roman town of Bithynia in modern-day Turkey. Emperor Hadrian met Antinous in Bithynia while touring his empire and the young Antinous quickly became part of the emperor’s inner circle.
Hadrian was married, but in Roman times it was usual for powerful and wealthy men to have relationships with younger male companions. Emperor Hadrian is known to have had many such relationships, Antinous being one of the most famous. While today we might think of Hadrian as ‘bisexual’, Romans did not define their sexuality in this way.
Antinous joined Hadrian, along with Hadrian’s wife, Sabina Augusta, on imperial tours across the Roman Empire.
A sculpture from the Arch of Constantine in Rome, depicting Hadrian on a lion hunt with Antinous by his side. Image via Wikimedia Commons
A sculpture from the Arch of Constantine in Rome, depicting Hadrian on a lion hunt with Antinous by his side. Image via Wikimedia Commons
Death and Legacy
During a tour of Egypt in AD 130, while celebrating the feast of Osiris on a cruise of the river Nile, Antinous tragically drowned. It’s unclear how this happened – whether it was suicide, accident, murder by a rival, or even by Hadrian himself. Hadrian was devastated and according to eyewitnesses ‘wept like a woman’.
Hadrian commemorated Antinous’ death in several extravagant ways. He declared Antinous a god, which was extremely unusual as generally only members of the imperial family were deified. He also founded a cult devoted to Antinous’ worship which became popular for all classes of Roman society, and statues were erected across the empire celebrating Antinous’ youthful beauty. Hadrian even created the city of Antinoöpolis on the site of Antinous’ death.
The figure of Antinous as Osiris was sculpted throughout classical times, showing how extensively the cult of Antinous was known. There is a famous example at the Vatican, which was found in Rome in the 16th century.
The version at Osborne was bought by Queen Victoria at a house sale in 1850 held in neighbouring Northwood House. Like most of the works on display at Osborne, the statue forms part of the Royal Collection.
At the time when Queen Victoria bought the statue, it was believed to be of the classical period. But it was later discovered to have been sculpted sometime between 1800 and 1806. The belief is that it was commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte as a gift to his brother Joseph, King of Naples, based on the fact that the statue was seized from a French warship in 1806 as it was sailing to Naples.
A bust of Hadrian, which can be seen at Chesters Roman Fort and Museum in Northumberland
Bust of Hadrian which can be seen at Chesters Roman Fort and Museum in Northumberland
A marble statue of Antinous as Osiris, currently in the collection of the Vatican Museum in Rome
A marble statue of Antinous as Osiris, currently in the collection of the Vatican Museum in Rome
The statue of Antinous as Osiris is on display at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight
The statue of Antinous as Osiris is on display at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight
Portrait of James I
Not much is known about this portrait of James I at Audley End House. It came to Audley End after 1797 when the Neville family inherited the house – it had previously been at their ancestral home in Berkshire.
The portrait was painted around the 1580s or 1590s by an unknown artist, probably a copyist (this image of James was reproduced a lot in the late 16th century). It shows James as a young King James VI of Scotland at the age of 20.
A similar portrait of James I from around 1587, by an unknown British artist, is at the Palace of Holyroodhouse. Royal Collection Trust/© His Majesty King Charles III 2024
A similar portrait of James I from around 1587, by an unknown British artist, is at the Palace of Holyroodhouse. Royal Collection Trust/© His Majesty King Charles III 2024
James became King of Scotland when he was only one year old following the forced abdication of his mother, Mary, Queen of Scots. His reign as James I of England began in 1603 after the death of Elizabeth I. Despite James being overshadowed by his more famous relatives, historians have acknowledged the peaceful nature of his reign and his efforts to unify Scotland and England.
James is also known to have enjoyed the company of several young male courtiers. We explore two of his most notable ‘favourites’ – Robert Carr and George Villiers.
Robert Carr: Rise and Fall
Robert Carr was a young Scot who first caught the king’s attention in 1607 when he fell from his horse during the accession day tilt and broke his leg. James took pity on him, marking the beginning of their relationship and Carr’s rise to power. As Thomas Howard of Audley End wrote in 1611:
‘If any mischance be to be wished, tis breaking a leg in the Kings presence, for this fellow [Carr] owes all his favour to that bout.’
Carr’s rapid ascent included being made Viscount Rochester by 1611 and a privy councillor; he became Earl of Somerset in 1613. James and Carr’s relationship was marked by public displays of affection, such as kissing and playing with each other’s hair.
However, Carr’s downfall was dramatic. By 1616, he and his wife were implicated in the poisoning of the poet Thomas Overbury. Despite his claims of innocence, Carr was found guilty, leading to his imprisonment. He was eventually released in 1622, but was exiled to his country estate. By this time, James had found a new favourite.
George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham
After Carr, George Villiers emerged as the significant favourite of James I. Born in 1592, Villiers was seen as a pawn used by influential courtiers to replace Carr in James’s affections. James first met Villiers in 1614 during a stay at Apethorpe in Northamptonshire.
Apethorpe in Northamptonshire
Apethorpe in Northamptonshire
Villiers’s attractiveness and charm quickly won the king’s favour. Within a year, Villiers was knighted and made a gentleman of the bedchamber, and by 1623 he had become the Duke of Buckingham, a privy councillor and Lord High Admiral of England.
The king christened his new favourite ‘Steenie’ after a passage in the Acts of the Apostles where the first martyr, St Stephen, is said to have the ‘face of an angel’.
Several letters between James and ‘Steenie’ survive. James addresses Villiers in various ways, including ‘only sweet and dear child’, ‘sweet Steenie gossip’, ‘sweet heart’, ‘sweet child and wife’, and signs himself ‘thy dear dad’, ‘dear dad and steward’, and ‘dear dad and husband’.
Villiers remained a close favourite of James I until the king’s death in 1625.
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, by the studio of William Larkin, around 1616. © National Portrait Gallery, London
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, by the studio of William Larkin, around 1616. © National Portrait Gallery, London
Part of a letter from George Villiers to James I dated 25 April 1623, where he signs himself as 'Steenie'. From the fourth series of Facsimiles of Royal, Historical, Literary and other Autographs in the Department of Manuscripts, British Museum: Series I–V (London, 1899). Photo by The Print Collector/Print Collector/Getty Images
Part of a letter from George Villiers to James I dated 25 April 1623, where he signs himself as 'Steenie'. Photo by The Print Collector/Print Collector/Getty Images
Historical Debate
Historians continue to debate the nature of James I’s relationships with his favourites. While some view them as purely political, there is substantial evidence of genuine affection. James I was vocal about his love for Villiers, stating in a public toast in 1617:
‘You may be sure that I love the Earl of Buckingham more than anyone else … Christ had his John, and I have my George.’
This openness about his feelings is rare in historical records, especially concerning same-sex relationships, which were often criminalised and socially condemned.
James I’s reign, marked by his personal relationships with Carr and Villiers among others, offers a unique lens through which to view the complexities of royal favouritism and same-sex affection in a period where such dynamics were typically hidden. His overt expressions of love challenge contemporary norms and provide valuable insights into the interplay of personal and political life in early modern monarchy.
A Portrait of Queen Anne as a Princess
This portrait of Queen Anne (r.1702–14) was painted sometime between 1685 and 1687 and is from the studio of the Dutch artist Willem Wissing.
It is part of the Wernher Collection on display at Ranger’s House in London. It shows Anne around the age of 18–20, before she became queen.
The painting would have been copied from an ‘autographed’ version by Wissing which was painted about 1683–5, around the time of Anne’s marriage to Prince George of Denmark.
The image accentuates the princess’s youth and beauty. The flowers in the background symbolise fertility and the ermine-lined cloak indicates her royal status.
Her youthful ease is perhaps telling of the fact that this portrait pre-dates many of the most trying times in Anne’s life. From her thirties she was plagued by a debilitating illness which caused weight gain, swelling in her joints, rashes and severe pain. We now think this was a type of lupus, which carries a high risk of miscarriage.
Despite 17 pregnancies, Anne tragically suffered several miscarriages and had a number of stillborn children. Her only child to survive infancy, Prince William, died in 1700, at just 11 years old.
A portrait of Sarah Churchill after Sir Godfrey Kneller, from around 1702. © National Portrait Gallery, London
A portrait of Sarah Churchill after Sir Godfrey Kneller, from around 1702. © National Portrait Gallery, London
A portrait of Queen Anne by Michael Dahl, from around 1702 when she was crowned. © National Portrait Gallery, London
A portrait of Queen Anne by Michael Dahl, from around 1702 when she was crowned. © National Portrait Gallery, London
Mrs Freeman and Mrs Morley
When Anne was only a child, she developed a close friendship with a girl named Sarah Jennings (later Churchill). Anne and Sarah met around 1675 when Sarah was lady in waiting to Anne’s stepmother.
A close relationship bloomed, and over the years Anne and Sarah wrote loving letters to one another. On one occasion Anne wrote:
‘tis impossible for you ever to believe how much I love you’.
In their letters Sarah and Anne gave each other equalising nicknames due to their difference in rank – Mrs Freeman (Sarah) and Mrs Morley (Anne).
Anne became queen in 1702 at the age of 37. By this time Sarah was firmly Anne’s favourite and the queen gave Sarah the highest positions in her household so she could always be near her.
She granted Sarah’s husband, John Churchill, a dukedom and Sarah became the Duchess of Marlborough. Sarah began to use her influence over the queen for her own political and personal gain, and became one of the most powerful women in England, bar the queen herself.
A New Introduction
In 1704 Anne was introduced to Abigail Hill (later Masham), a cousin of Sarah’s who had fallen on hard times. Sarah secured her a position as one of Anne’s chambermaids. Little was Sarah to know that this introduction would be the start of her own fall from grace.
Anne had become tired of Sarah’s domineering bluntness and rudeness, and she warmed to Abigail’s contrasting kind and gentle nature.
Furious with her apparent supplantation, Sarah and her friends circulated a slanderous song about Queen Anne and Abigail. It insinuated, among other things, that their relationship was a lesbian one:
‘When as Queen Anne of Great Renown
Great Britain’s Sceptre sway’d
Besides the church she dearly loved
a dirty chambermaid ...
her secretary she was not
for she could not write
but had the conduct and the care
of some dark deeds at night’
It also referred to Abigail as a ‘slut of state’ and a ‘saucy, proud, ungrateful bitch’.
Anne and Sarah’s relationship deteriorated further when, after Anne’s beloved husband passed away, Sarah had his portrait removed without consulting her. Anne stripped Sarah of her positions at Court, and the two never saw each other again. The most important positions she left vacant were backfilled by Abigail.
This portrait may be of Abigail Masham, though the sitter has not been formally identified. Painted around 1700 by an unknown artist. © National Portrait Gallery, London
This portrait may be of Abigail Masham, though the sitter has not been formally identified. Painted around 1700 by an unknown artist. © National Portrait Gallery, London
A portrait of Sarah's husband, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, after Sir Godfrey Kneller, painted around 1690. © National Portrait Gallery, London
A portrait of Sarah's husband, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, after Sir Godfrey Kneller, painted around 1690. © National Portrait Gallery, London
A portrait of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford, by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1714. © National Portrait Gallery, London
A portrait of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford, by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1714. © National Portrait Gallery, London
Politics or Love?
While we can never know the exact nature of Anne’s relationships with her favourites, politics are almost always involved when talking about powerful people.
Sarah used her position to influence the queen to pass increasingly more Whig policies, which would benefit her and her husband, the Duke of Marlborough and commander-in-chief of the forces.
Anne initially supported the Whig administration of Sidney Godolphin, which kept the war going with France, but she was aware of domestic opposition to it, especially among Tories – also known as the Church Party. The Church of England was of utmost importance to Anne.
Sarah’s fall from grace and her replacement by Abigail – herself also a cousin of the Tory leader, Robert Harley – was a significant factor in the fall of the Whig administration and its replacement by the Tories.
While Anne’s letters to Sarah testify to the intensity of their relationship, we also know that people close to Anne – including her father and her sister – discouraged what they called ‘unnatural’ attachments to Sarah and other women.
However, Anne was deeply religious. If she did have homoerotic feelings toward Sarah it is unlikely that she would have admitted them to herself, let alone have acted on them.
Despite the rumours Sarah circulated, the relationship between Anne and Abigail seems to have been founded on the fact that in comparison to Sarah, Abigail was so much easier to get on with.
Anne’s legacy
Queen Anne died in 1714, aged 49. Sarah lived another 30 years and published her memoirs, which reiterated the salacious rumours and portrayed Anne as an emotionally stunted invalid – a caricature that has survived to this day.
However, in the last decade Anne’s reign has been reappraised as a relatively successful one. It saw the unification of England and Scotland, gains made in war, and a flourishing of the arts, architecture and culture, while Anne herself battled debilitating illness and betrayal by those closest to her, and endured more loss and heartbreak than most could bear.
Built with Shorthand
